Asthma discordance in twins is linked to epigenetic modifications of T cells.

T cells mediate the inflammatory responses observed in asthma among genetically susceptible individuals and have been suspected to be prone to epigenetic regulation. However, these relationships are not well established from past clinical studies that have had limited capacity to control for the effects of variable genetic predisposition and early environmental exposures. Relying on a cohort of monozygotic twins discordant for asthma we sought to determine if epigenetic modifications in T cells were associated with current asthma and explored whether such modifications were associated with second hand smoke exposures. Our study was conducted in a monozygotic twin cohort of adult twin pairs (n = 21) all discordant for asthma. Regulatory T cell (Treg) and effector T cell (Teff) subsets were assessed for levels of cellular function, protein expression, gene expression and CpG methylation within Forkhead box P3 (FOXP3) and interferon gamma-γ (IFNγ) loci. Comparisons by asthma and current report of exposure to second hand smoke were made. Treg from asthmatic discordant twins demonstrated decreased FOXP3 protein expression and impaired Treg function that was associated with increased levels of CpG methylation within the FOXP3 locus when compared to their non-asthmatic twin partner. In parallel, Teff from discordant asthmatic twins demonstrated increased methylation of the IFNγ locus, decreased IFNγ expression and reduced Teff function when compared to Teff from the non-asthmatic twin. Finally, report of current exposure to second hand smoke was associated with modifications in both Treg and Teff at the transcriptional level among asthmatics. The results of the current study provide evidence for differential function of T cell subsets in monozygotic twins discordant for asthma that are regulated by changes in DNA methylation. Our preliminary data suggest exposure to second hand smoke may augment the modified T cell responses associated with asthma.

The in vitro derivation of phenotypically mature and diverse B cells from immature spleen and bone marrow precursors.

The capacity of immature B cells of the spleen and bone marrow to differentiate in vitro into cells representing mature end stage cells was investigated using B-cell activating factor belonging to the TNF family (BAFF) and Notch pathway activators. Immature splenic and bone marrow B cells were found, in the presence of both of these activators, to mature into cells with follicular mature (FM) and marginal zone (MZ) cell phenotypes. Such cells were functionally responsive to B-cell-specific activation. The derivation in vitro of cells with an MZ phenotype was more robust from CD23(-) populations than CD23(+) immature/transitional B cells, suggesting a direct immature/T1 B cell to MZ cell differentiation pathway. Transcript analysis of the in vitro-derived B-cell populations demonstrated expression profiles similar to maturing B cells in vivo. FACS-purified populations of B220(+)CD19(+)CD21(-)CD23(-) cells from bone marrow of 2-wk-old mice gave rise to populations of CD21(+)CD23(-) cells with MZ cell phenotypes as well as CD21(+)CD23(+) cells with FM cell phenotypes in percentages similar to those found in vivo. These data suggest that the commitment to an MZ and FM B cell phenotype is set prior to immature B-cell release from the marrow.

Regulation of murine splenic B cell CR3 expression by complement component 3.

Complement component C3 has established roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses. C3 cleavage products function in B cell activation through the complement receptors CD21/35. Phenotypes of Ab production between CD21/35(-/-) and C3(-/-) mice are not always congruent, implicating additional roles for C3 in B cell responses. To further characterize complement and complement receptors, we have identified a role for C3 in the regulation of CR3 on splenic B cells. Splenic B2 cells are not defined as expressing CR3, yet the analysis of splenic B cells from C3(-/-) animals demonstrate cell surface expression of CR3. B cells from both wild-type (WT) and C3(-/-) animals express CR3/CD11b/Itgam (integrin alpha M) gene transcripts although the level of such transcripts is 2- to 3-fold higher in B cells from the C3(-/-) animal vs WT cells. C3(-/-) and WT animals have similar B cell subpopulations with identical CR3 expression on B220(-) cells from the spleen, marrow, and lymph nodes. The C3-deficient environment is responsible for altered CR3 expression as WT splenic B cells transferred into C3(-/-) animals expressed cell surface CR3 within 48 h while transfer of C3(-/-) splenic B cells into WT animals depressed surface expression of CR3. Furthermore, transfer of C3-producing splenic macrophages into C3(-/-) mice depressed CR3 expression by resident B cells. These data suggest a role for C3 in influencing the level of expression of CR3 by modulating the transcript levels encoding the CD11b alpha integrin protein.

CD21 signaling via C3 regulates Purkinje cell protein 4 expression.

Complement receptor proteins CR2 (CD21) and CR1 (CD35) have been identified as components of the murine B cell co-receptor complex. Gene expression profiles between naïve WT, C3-/-, and CD21/35-/- B cells demonstrate enhanced expression of a Ca(2+)-modulating gene, Pcp4, in WT mice compared to the complement-deficient animals. Increased expression of Pcp4 is also coincident with B cell maturation into end stage phenotypes. Prolonged activation of B cells via cross-linking of the BCR (but not CR1/CR2 alone) leads to increased expression of Pcp4 and suppressed Ca(2+) release. In total these data demonstrate that the expression of Pcp4 in naïve resting mature B cells is dependent upon tonic stimulation from the CR1/CR2 proteins via a C3 ligand, and that antigen specific B cell activation can also elevate Pcp4 expression that is coincident with suppression of calcium-dependent responses.

Complement receptors 1 and 2 influence the immune environment in a B cell receptor-independent manner.

The CD21/35 proteins are complement receptors implicated in controlling and interpreting activation states of the innate and acquired immune responses. One defect of CD21/35(-/-) animals is depressed production of Ag-specific IgG3 which we show is evident in vivo but not in vitro. Gene expression profiles obtained from naive wild-type and CD21/35(-/-) splenocytes demonstrated enhanced expression of inflammatory mediators from CD11b(+) splenocytes in the CD21/35(-/-) animals. Splenocyte populations between wild-type and CD21/35(-/-) mice were similar except for a moderate increase in GR1(low)CD31(+) immature myeloid cells. Furthermore, depletion of neutrophils and other GR1-expressing cells alleviates elevated inflammatory gene expression in the CD21/35(-/-) spleen. Complement activation also plays a key role in the differential gene expression observed in the CD21/35-deficient mouse as depletion of C3 or inhibition of C3a receptor signaling within the animal returned inflammatory gene expression within the spleen to wild-type levels. Finally, C3 depletion before immunization allowed for the enhanced production of Ag-specific IgG3 production in the CD21/35(-/-) mouse compared with mock-depleted animals. These data suggest that the overall environment of the CD21/35(-/-) spleen is quite different from that of the wild-type animal perhaps due to altered complement convertase activity. This difference may be responsible for a number of the phenotypes ascribed to the deficiency of CD21/35 proteins on B cells and follicular dendritic cells.

Mice lacking CD21 and CD35 proteins mount effective immune responses against Borrelia burgdorferi infection.

CD21/35(-/-) mice, deficient in CD21 and CD35 (complement receptors 2 and 1, respectively), were infected with Borrelia burgdorferi to assess the role of these receptors in a chronic bacterial infection. Although CD21/35(-/-) mice on both C57BL/6 and BALB/c backgrounds produced less B. burgdorferi-specific antibodies than did wild-type mice, spirochete levels and arthritis severity were similar.

Cysteine-rich domains of muc3 intestinal mucin promote cell migration, inhibit apoptosis, and accelerate wound healing.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Muc3 intestinal mucin contains an extracellular cysteine-rich domain with 2 epidermal growth factor (EGF)-like motifs. The aim of this study was to determine the functional properties of Muc3 proteins. METHODS: Glutathione S-transferase-fusion proteins containing both Muc3 EGF-like domains (m3EGF1,2) or truncated versions (m3EGF1 and m3EGF2) were purified from Escherichia coli. Mouse colon (young adult mouse colon) and human A431 and LoVo cells were examined for migration and tyrosine phosphorylation in response to recombinant proteins. LoVo cells were transfected with a human MUC3A transmembrane-EGF1,2 construct and a stable clone was isolated (LhM3c14). Endogenous MUC3A in LoVo was inhibited by specific small interfering RNA transfection. Apoptosis was quantitated by nuclear morphology or terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase-mediated deoxyuridine triphosphate biotin nick-end labeling assay. Colitis was induced in mice by oral 5% dextran sodium sulfate or rectal 5% acetic acid, followed by enema treatments. RESULTS: m3EGF1,2 stimulated cell migration in all cell lines, but did not induce proliferation. Migration was inhibited by a tyrosine phosphorylation inhibitor, genistein, but not by the EGF receptor inhibitor, tyrphostin (AG1478). Inhibition of endogenous MUC3A in LoVo reduced baseline migration. Tyrosine phosphorylation of ErbB receptors was not observed after treatment of cells with m3EGF1,2. LoVo cells pretreated with m3EGF1,2 and transfected LhM3c14 cells showed reduced apoptosis in response to tumor necrosis factor alpha or Fas-receptor stimulation. Administration of m3EGF1,2 per rectum significantly reduced mucosal ulceration and apoptosis in experimental acute colitis. Truncated proteins m3EGF1 and m3EGF2 had no effect. CONCLUSIONS: The Muc3 mucin cysteine-rich domain plays an active role in epithelial restitution, and represents a potential novel therapeutic agent for intestinal wound healing.